Impact of Thatchers Right-to-Buy Policy

Impact of Thatchers Right-to-Buy Policy Analyse the impact of Margaret Thatchers right-to-buy policy in the Housing Act, 1980. As Margaret Thatcher was preparing for the 1979 general election, she promised in her Conservative manifesto that if in power, she would attempt to privatize some of Britains industries that were state owned. One of the industries that she highlighted to be of importance was that of giving the British people the opportunity to buy their state owned home which would give the working classes an opportunity that was never previously presented before them. Thatcher and the Conservatives decisively beat the Labour Party on the 3rd May 1975 and Thatcher, who was now the first female Prime Minister of Britain, stuck to her promises of the right-to-buy social housing and in 1980, the Housing Act was passed. In this essay, the consequences of the Housing Act from the time of its inception, up until the modern day will be analysed. Since Thatchers policy was enacted, there has been a radical decrease in the amount of housing that is state owned and an increase in people that own their own prop erty. In most parts of Britain, there is little social housing in Britain and a great deal of homelessness because of the realities of Right-to-Buy (RTB). Many homeowners have become wealthy landlords who have rented their ex-council homes out for up to five times more than the rent of council tenants. With the increase in homeowners but a decrease in social housing, was the right-to-buy policy that was created by Thatcher a success in the modern day? Before an analysis of Thatchers Right to Buy policy takes place, it is imperative that a study of the creation of council housing be undertaken. Council housing (the term for public housing constructed by local government authorities in the United Kingdom), was a policy that was dedicated to re-housing low income families into state owned properties that were subsided.[1] This particular policy came about following the devastation and aftermath of the First World War and the state of slums in Britain. The need to re-house families arose from an ongoing policy of slum clearance in the 1920s and 1930s; a need heightened from the 1940s onwards because 4 million UK houses were seriously damaged or destroyed by bombing following the Second World War.[2] Britain faced a serious housing problem following 1945, and large areas of the cities with serious bomb damage (such as London in the south and Coventry in the midlands) had to be completely cleared and rebuilt.[3]ÂÂ   Helped by the n ew Labour government in 1945 (which promised the social welfare programme to improve the living standards of all in Britain), alongside the implementation of the 1946 Land Acquisitions Act, which allowed local authorities to purchase land for new houses to be built, council house building was done on a vast scale after 1945 and continued well into the 1970s.[4] By 1979 and at the time of the British general election, around 32% of all homes in Britain were council houses, totalling some 6.5 million properties.[5] The selling of state homes in Britain was not an invention of Thatcher and the Conservatives in 1979. Rather, state owned homes were being sold off in the 1920s, but as Alan Murie argues, it was done on such a smaller scale compared to that of the Thatcher government.[6] In as far back as the nineteenth century, housing legislation required that council-built dwelling in redevelopment areas should be sold within 10 years of completion.[7] In the 1950s, sales of social housing increased from the 1920s and by May 1956, over five thousand homes were sold (and that was just in 1956!).[8] It was not until the late 1960s however, when campaigning Conservative local councils undertook successful sales schemes, that Party elites reconceived the idea as an attractive and tenable policy option.[9] By the 1970s, the debate over the right to buy social housing was getting heated. In 1972, Peter Walker (Conservative Environment Secretary, 15 October 1970 5 November 1972) announced at the annual party conference that he believed council tenants who wished to purchase their homes had a very basic right to do so, alongside a discount which applied to those who had stayed at their property long enough.[10]ÂÂ   Michael Hazeltine, the shadow environment secretary in 1979, also a conservative and one of Margaret Thatchers closest colleagues, agreed with Walker and urged Thatcher that if they were to win the next election, a RTB policy should be created for the 400,000+ people that were in a position to buy their own homes.[11] Thatcher, known for her principles of privatization, did not take much swaying from Hazeltine and used this revolutionary policy as a selling point to the people of Britain in the build up to the 1979 general election where Thatcher was in contention to become the first ever female Prime Minister of Britain.[12] In the Conservative manifesto of 1979, Margaret Thatcher emphasised considerably on the issue of housing. Under the heading Helping the Family, the housing topic stretched across one and a half pages. This was more than important issues such as education and the state of the National Health Service, issues that were usually seen as pivotal as a selling point in a partys manifesto. Thatchers emphasis was as Alan Murie states, on home ownership and on tax cuts, lower mortgage rates, and special schemes to make purchase easier. More important than anything else, the selling of council houses was the radical approach to enable working class people to be able to afford the right to buy their own homes. She suggested that the longer the tenant stayed at their council property, the relevant discount should be made, to a maximum of fifty per cent for tenants of twenty years. Thatcher was always a firm believer of letting the individual be in control and the state should be involved in as lit tle as possible. What this meant with regards to housing is that social housing costs the government a vast amount of money. Privatizing the housing sector to those that can afford to buy their own property allowed to free up government funds, as well as giving people the opportunity to buy where before it was not possible. Upon winning the election of 1979, Thatcher went about getting her Housing Act approved by parliament as soon as possible. However, she and her environment secretary Michael Hazeltine faced fierce opposition to the act from the Labour Party and the House of Lords, and it took nearly eighteen months for the act to be finally approved by parliament (3rd October 1980). Upon Thatchers parliamentary victory, she introduced her Housing Act policies in a special television broadcast. If you have been a council tenant for at least three years, you will have the right, by law, to buy your house, she claimed. The right to buy, as it was coined, became the slogan which would transform the housing market in the present day. Andy Beckett argues that the right to buy slogan was clever, clear, easy to say, easy to remember, and combining two of modern Britains favourite preoccupations, personal freedom and purchasing, while also encapsulating the more seductive side of what the Thatcher government was offering the country, he also added that her use of the word house in the special broadcast, when millions of council tenants actually lived in flats, was also significant. It gave the policy an aspirational flavour: reassuringly suburban rather than proletarian and urban. What Thatcher wanted to do with this special broadcast was to catch the attention of the masses of Britain. As the working classes were becoming more and more disassociated with politics, it was in Thatchers interest to reignite their interest. Knowing that this particular policy was radical, Thatcher wanted to make sure that everyone from any background could be effected by the implementation of the Housing Act. As television was becoming more readily available to the people of Britain, it was shrewd of Thatcher and the Conservative party to advertise right to buy due to the benefits of television, where it had the ability to see Thatcher persuading the public in a way where it felt she was in every living ro om in Britain. [1] Disney, R. (2010). The right to buy public housing in Britain: A welfare analysis. Institute of Fiscal Studies. 05 (1), p3. [2] Ibid. [3] McDonald, J. A. (2011). Urban Economics and Real Estate: Theory and Policy. Massachusetts: John Wiley Sons, Inc. p222. [4] Leventhal, F. M (2002). Twentieth-century Britain: an encyclopaedia. London: Peter Lang Publishing Inc. p136. [5] Disney, R. (2010). The right to buy public housing in Britain: A welfare analysis. Institute of Fiscal Studies. 05 (1), p3. [6] Murie, A (2006). Right to Buy. London: Wiley-Blackwell. p112. [7] Ibid. [8] Beckett, A. (2015). The right to buy: the housing crisis that Thatcher built. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/26/right-to-buy-margaret-thatcher-david-cameron-housing-crisis. Last accessed 3rd March 2017. [9] Davies, A. R. (2013). Right to Buy: The Development of a Conservative Housing Policy, 1945 1980. Contemporary British History. 27 (4), p3. [10] Beckett, A. (2015). The right to buy: the housing crisis that Thatcher built. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/26/right-to-buy-margaret-thatcher-david-cameron-housing-crisis. Last accessed 3rd March 2017. [11] Murie, A (2016). The Right to Buy?: Selling off Public and Social Housing. London: Policy Press. p75. [12] Holmes, M (1989). Thatcherism: Scope and Limits, 1983-87. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p226.

Women in the Scientific Revolution

Women in the Scientific Revolution The scientific revolution is generally considered part of the broader intellectual revolution that began with the Italian Renaissance and the rediscovery and translation of the classical writers, particularly Aristotle, sometime during the fourteenth century. It is only in retrospect that one can understand broad movements, such as this, but one can assert with confidence that the scientific revolution resulted from a confluence of several factors, most particularly the rejection of the Ptolemaic model of planetary movement combined with an increased interest in Aristotelian science (Grant, 1996). Thus, the scientific revolution, insofar as it was a revolution rather than a developing, continuous process, may be claimed to have begun in 1543 with the publication of Copernicus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, though establishing this as a boundary is as much a matter of convenience as anything else (Linton, 2004). As an intellectual and cultural phenomenon, the scientific revoluti on continues to the present, moving through such advances as Newtonian mechanics, the experimental method of chemistry, advanced in anatomy and medicine, Darwinian evolution, relativity and quantum mechanics, with myriad offshoots at every stage along the way of this development. At the present, there is much dispute about how, or whether, the scientific revolution will end: some think it will continue forever, while others believe it will culminate with grand unification, a theory of everything that explains both gravity and subatomic forces, in effect capable of describing all phenomena (Westfall, 1971). That woman have played pivotal roles in the advancement of science is undeniable; as with male figures, it is possible to isolate selected examples of women who made significant contributions. There is no reason to believe that such contributions were made because of their gender, but given the nature of society at the time of the scientific revolution, one may assert that the contributions were made in spite of their gender. As the scientific revolution may be said to continue to the present day, so too, does the gender bias in the sciences, though there is evidence this is getting better. Women in the Scientific Revolution Margaret Cavendish Perhaps Margaret Cavendish is the best example of such a woman in the midst of the scientific revolution. While biographies of her once concentrated on her eccentric behavior and the more florid aspects of her life (Grant, 1957, Whitaker, 2003), we are the beneficiaries of a recent flurry of scholarly interest in her philosophical and scientific undertakings. She engaged with, and apparently held her own against Thomas Hobbes, Robert Boyle, Renà © Descartes and others in the early Royal Society, though she herself was denied fellowship in that exalted body (Walters, 2014). Margaret Cavendish rejected Aristotelianism and the mechanist philosophies that prevailed through much of that time, adopting a vitalist view instead, holding that living things are different from nonliving things in that they possess a spark of life that subjects them to different physical rules; this is now an obsolete scientific theory (Sarasohn, 2010). ONeill in Cavendish (2001) characterizes Cavendishs natura l philosophy as an outright rejection of Aristotle while adopting stoic doctrines; ONeill (2001) also notes that while women rarely wrote on scientific matters at this time, Margaret Cavendish published six scientific books, two of which are currently in print; it is also worth noting that Margaret Cavendish was a duchess and, as such, had certain social and economic advantages most other women would not have shared. Cavendishs main scientific work was Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (2001), written in the vernacular, rather than the Latin that was typical of scientific books until well into the nineteenth century, which itself reflects the scientific revolutions origin in the Greek and Latin classics. She had already undertaken earnest study of contemporary scientific and philosophical works and this book of hers clearly shows the influence of Thomas Hobbes, who had instructed her brother Sir Charles Lucas in philosophy; in fact, she was one of the few of her time who accepted Hobbes ideas that incorporeal souls do not exist in nature (Sarasohn, 2010). She certainly expresses herself well in her book, even discussing in the preface whether her excessive writing is a disease (Mendelson, 1987), a question that still plagues modern practitioners (e.g., Flaherty, 2004). As she points out, she wrote primarily for herself and if it was a disease, then it was a wonderful disease suffered by A ristotle, Homer and Cicero, among others (Cavendish, 2001). Women in the Scientific Revolution Maria Winckelmann In Germany, circumstances for women in science were different; few independently pursed their scientific interests. The astronomer Maria Winckelmann Kirsch is perhaps the best and certainly the best remembered example. She married the astronomer and mathematician Gottfried Kirsch and while they functioned as equals, the prevailing attitude of their time was that she was his assistant; Kirsch himself was a product of a scientific family and there is no reason to believe he did not appreciate his wifes collaboration. In any event, we know she wrote of the conjunctions of the planets and, in 1702 became the first woman to discover a comet; she also published the most erudite observations of the aurora borealis to that time (Schiebinger, 1987). Unfortunately, Maria Winckelmann Kirsch has yet to benefit from a revival of scholarly interest in her life and activities that has benefited Margaret Cavendish. Women in the Scientific Revolution Maria Gaetana Agnesi In Italy, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance, the situation for women was different still, and is best exemplified by Maria Gaetana Agnesi, who, like Margaret Cavendish, had the advantages of wealth and social position and also pursued her interests independently. Her father was a professor of mathematics at Bologna and Maria showed intellectual gifts from an early age (Osen, 1975). Throughout her life, he was a very religious person and constantly found herself in the verge of spiritual revelation; fortunately for the history of science, she was a person of rare intellectual energy and she undertook the study of calculus when that was still cutting edge mathematics. Her most important work is Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della gioventà ¹ italiana, which uncharitably translates to Analytic Institutions for Use by Italian Youths an excellent introduction to Euclid and the first work to include both differential and integral calculus; in fact, Struik (1987) refers to her at the first important woman mathematician since Hypatia, some thirteen centuries before; Struik (1987) also calls this work the model for all subsequent calculus textbooks. As it was intended as a textbook for use by students, like Cavendish, Agnesi wrote in the vernacular Italian, and wrote very well, though lacked the Margaret Cavendishs literary charm. Agnesi became a professor of mathematics at the University of Bologna, the first woman to achieve this, anywhere. As noted, she spent much of her life in religious contemplation, though it should also be noted that she devoted much of her she considerable wealth to helping the poor and infirm, to the point that she converted at least part of her home into a charity hospital. She was recognized in her lifetime and was praised by many, including Pope Benedict XIV, himself no intellectual lightweight (Mazzotti, 1987). If Maria Agnesi is remembered for anything now, curiously it is for something she did not discover: the Witch of Agnesi, a curve whose mathematical properties lie somewhat outside the scope of this paper. While others had previously considered this curve, Agnesi was the first to give it a rigorous analytical treatment in her textbook; that it is called a witch is the product of an unfortunate early mistranslation into English that stuck. The curve, however, has one property worth mentioning: it almost exactly resembles an isolated water wave (Mazzotti, 1987). These three are just examples of women who took part in the scientific revolution. There were many others worthy of mention and many others still whose contributions are either lost or unrecognized, in some cases, to this day. The Status of Women in Science Now It is safe to say that of all the scientists ever, an overwhelming percentage are professionally active now, and among there, there are more women than ever before. This notwithstanding, women face serious obstacles in the sciences. Statistics indicate that women do less well than men in terms of degree, tenure and salary. In a field such as nursing, that has traditionally been dominated by women, men hold four percent of the professorships; by contrast women have never held as much as four percent of the professorships in any field dominated by men; even in psychology, were women obtain the majority of doctorates, women do not yet fill the majority of professorships (Schiebinger, 2001). Even so, there have been many noteworthy women scientists at present. To cite just one such example, the American Barbara McClintock discovered the transposition of genes and this explained how certain physical characteristics are turned on or off (Comfort, 1999). For this, she was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1944 and in 1983 won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine and, in fact, remains the only woman to win that prize, unshared. There is some contention over the exact nature and precedence of her discoveries, but even her critics concede her pivotal role in genetics research (Comfort, 2001). Reducing Barbara McClintock and her contributions to a single paragraph is hardly fair to her, or to women in science today. It is, however, important to recognize that woman have made important contributions to science from the earliest times and while many of these contributions remain unrecognized, this is finally being addressed. Given current demographic and educational trends, it is clear that the influence of women in science will only increase with time. Conclusion As noted, women have played important roles in science from antiquity to the present, though their roles and their contributions have often been lost or gone unrecognized. This paper has examined three such figures from the time of the scientific revolution, as well as one from the postwar era in the United States to demonstrate that their contributions can be meaningful and as important as those of their male counterparts. It is to be understood that if science is to be a truly democratic and fair institution, it must welcome contributions and criticism from everyone and while tremendous strides have been made, the institution of science as a whole still has a long way to go to achieve this egalitarian goal. References Cavendish, M. (2001). Observations upon experimental philosophy. E. ONeill (ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Comfort, N. (1999). The real point is control: The reception of Barbara McClintocks controlling elements. Journal of the History of Biology, 32 (1): 133–62 Comfort, N. (2001). The tangled field. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Flaherty, A. (2004). The midnight disease: The drive to write, writers block, and the creative brain. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace. Grant, D. (1957). Margaret the first: A biography of Margaret Cavendish Duchess of Newcastle 1623–1673. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Grant, E. (1996). The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: Their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Linton, C. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein: A history of mathematical astronomy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Mazzotti, M. (2007). The world of Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Mathematician of God. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Mendelson, S. (1987). Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle. In The mental world of three Stuart women. Brighton, UK: Harvester, pp. 12–61. Osen, L. (1975). Women in Mathematics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sarasohn, L. (2010) The natural philosophy of Margaret Cavendish: Reason and fancy during the scientific revolution. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Schiebinger, L. (1987). Maria Winckelmann at the Berlin Academy: A turning point for women in science. Isis, Journal of the History of Science Society, 78 (292): 174–200. Schiebinger, L. (2001). Has Feminism Changed Science? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Struik, D. (1987). A Concise history of mathematics (4th rev. ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications. Walters, L. (2014). Margaret Cavendish: Gender, science and politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Westfall, R. (1971). The construction of modern science. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Whitaker, K. (2003). Mad Madge: Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, royalist, writer and romantic. London: Chatto and Windus.

Deer Hunting: A Family Tradition Essay -- Personal Narrative

Since the beginning of time man has been hunting animals for food. Even before fire, man needed to hunt, because hunting was the only way to eat. At first man used things such as spears and rocks to kill its prey. As man evolved, they started using bows and arrows. Next came an early model of what we use today, the firearm. It is powerful yet easy to carry around. It puts the animal through less suffering and is a lot more efficient than previous techniques. Hunting was once a necessity, but now it is a tradition, passed on from father to son as a way to spend time together, enjoy the outdoors, and experience what our ancestors went through in hunting their dinner. Since it is considered a sport some think we are killing off the deer population, when in actuality, â€Å"While most other big-game species have declined with the spread of urbanization, the whitetail has been able to adapt to its ever-changing environment. Through the efforts of state agencies and conservati on groups like Whitetails Unlimited, wildlife officials estimate today’s whitetail population to exceed 30 million† (www.whitetailsunlimited.org). For as long as I can remember, the week after Thanksgiving my father would get up even earlier than usual, get all bundled up in his camouflage clothes, and head up into the woods bright and early. I wasn’t exactly sure why this morning routine was so mundane compared to his usual work day routine, but as I grew older I would begin to understand. Time went on and I finally learned where he was going, though I still didn’t exactly know why he was going hunting. At the age of 12 my Dad told me I would finally be able to go hunting with him, if I wanted. Although a pistol can be used, a... ...ns we had plenty of time to talk about things, but I also had time to sit and think about things for myself in the calm outdoors. That first day of hunting proved to me that hunting is one of the most fun and enjoyable things to do, along with an emotional experience, as long as it is done safety. Works Cited â€Å"Ignoring hunter safety can be a fatal mistake.† Times-Picayune. 13 Nov. 2013. 36. Kathman, Margaret. â€Å"A Reluctant Deer Hunter.† September 7, 2013, Blog Web. 4 Dec. 2013. http://margaretkathman.blogspot.com/2013/09/a-reluctant-deer-hunter.html Feinman, Ron. Personal. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. Slinksy, Jim â€Å"The Perfect Deer Rifle.† Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . The Ultimate Hunting Network. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . Whitetails Unlimited. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . Deer Hunting: A Family Tradition Essay -- Personal Narrative Since the beginning of time man has been hunting animals for food. Even before fire, man needed to hunt, because hunting was the only way to eat. At first man used things such as spears and rocks to kill its prey. As man evolved, they started using bows and arrows. Next came an early model of what we use today, the firearm. It is powerful yet easy to carry around. It puts the animal through less suffering and is a lot more efficient than previous techniques. Hunting was once a necessity, but now it is a tradition, passed on from father to son as a way to spend time together, enjoy the outdoors, and experience what our ancestors went through in hunting their dinner. Since it is considered a sport some think we are killing off the deer population, when in actuality, â€Å"While most other big-game species have declined with the spread of urbanization, the whitetail has been able to adapt to its ever-changing environment. Through the efforts of state agencies and conservati on groups like Whitetails Unlimited, wildlife officials estimate today’s whitetail population to exceed 30 million† (www.whitetailsunlimited.org). For as long as I can remember, the week after Thanksgiving my father would get up even earlier than usual, get all bundled up in his camouflage clothes, and head up into the woods bright and early. I wasn’t exactly sure why this morning routine was so mundane compared to his usual work day routine, but as I grew older I would begin to understand. Time went on and I finally learned where he was going, though I still didn’t exactly know why he was going hunting. At the age of 12 my Dad told me I would finally be able to go hunting with him, if I wanted. Although a pistol can be used, a... ...ns we had plenty of time to talk about things, but I also had time to sit and think about things for myself in the calm outdoors. That first day of hunting proved to me that hunting is one of the most fun and enjoyable things to do, along with an emotional experience, as long as it is done safety. Works Cited â€Å"Ignoring hunter safety can be a fatal mistake.† Times-Picayune. 13 Nov. 2013. 36. Kathman, Margaret. â€Å"A Reluctant Deer Hunter.† September 7, 2013, Blog Web. 4 Dec. 2013. http://margaretkathman.blogspot.com/2013/09/a-reluctant-deer-hunter.html Feinman, Ron. Personal. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. Slinksy, Jim â€Å"The Perfect Deer Rifle.† Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . The Ultimate Hunting Network. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . Whitetails Unlimited. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. .

Virtual Reality :: essays research papers

Virtual Reality Today Virtual reality allows people to study artificial worlds through simulation and computer graphics. Computers have changed the way we perform flight training, scientific research and conduct business. Flight simulators have drastically reduced the time and money required to learn to fly large jets. One of the most interesting capabilities of virtual reality is the ability to practice certain medical practices. Computers are helping many doctors perform complicated operations very simply. Computers have changed the way we look at health problems. They have made incurable health problems very easy to solve in today's society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We have only begun to realize the extreme wastefulness of burning expensive fuel in aircraft in order to learn something in an hour that could be taught in ten minutes in a simulator. Simulators have come a long way since 1929, when Ed Link first built what was soon to be known as the pilot maker, or more affectionately, the blue box. Students often find themselves sitting at the end of a runway waiting for takeoff clearance on a busy day, with the engine turning and burning expensive gas. This is not a very effective way for students to spend money. Most students do not have access to expensive flight simulators. Most have to travel hundreds of miles to take advantage of these amazing simulators. Flight simulators are much better than an airplane for the simple reason that in a simulator the learning environment is much safer. Students are able to avoid the overriding need to keep the airplane flying and out of harm's way. In a simulator a student is constantly busy, practicing what he is supposed to be learning, and once he's flown a given maneuver, he is able to go back and do it over again, without wasting time or fuel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Years ago doctors used X-rays to see the insides of humans. X-ray's were most helpful in finding broken bones. These machines were an incredible break through years ago. Today X-ray machines are hardly ever used. Today we use computer-aided volumetric images of internal organs, often referred to as cross-sectional images of the body's interior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the past scars were often left behind after major surgeries. We have avoided leaving these nasty scars through fiber optics. If a patient needs surgery on an injured nee, the doctor would cut two small holes in the side of the patient's knee and glide the tiny light, camera, and operating tools inside. The doctor would be able to monitor what he was doing from a colored monitor screen.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Virtual reality also allows leeway for doctor's mistakes. With virtual reality a student is able to try several different operations more than once.

Research methodology Essay

Methodology and methods are two terms which have been used interchangeably often by scholars. The practice is unfortunate because they are not the same. The former refers to philosophy and the latter refers to technical procedures applied to conduct research. The word methodology comprises two nouns: method and ology, which means a branch of knowledge; hence, methodology is a branch of knowledge that deals with the general principles or axioms of the generation of new knowledge. It refers to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie any natural, social or human science study, whether articulated or not. Simply put, methodology refers to how each of logic, reality, values and what counts as knowledge inform research. On the other hand, methods are the techniques and procedures followed to conduct research, and are determined by the methodology (i.e. sampling, data collection, data analysis and results reporting, as well as theories, conceptual frameworks, taxonomies and models). Even the focus and intent of the research, and the actual research questions themselves, are shaped by the methodology (McGregor, 2010). In methodology we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also methodology. (Kothari, 2004). The following are the systematic analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed in research which define methodology: 1. Formulating the Research Problem The definition of research question is the most important step when undertaking any research as they give direction to the research method applied (Yin, 2003). Sebastian et al, (2011) explains that it requires an open mind while framing the research question. At the same time the researcher is required to familiarize with potential research methods and build awareness of their requirements. A researcher must examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with the selected problem. 2. Literature Review A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers. Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic and can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. They also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant (The Writing Center, 2010-2013). For purposes of literature review abstracting and indexing journals,conference proceedings, government reports, books etc must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. 3. Developing a Working Hypothesis Hypothesis is a statement of the predicted relationship between two or more variables. As a reseracher you do not know about a phenomenon but you do have a hunch(theory) to form the basis of certain assumption or guesses. You test these by collecting information that will enable you to conclude if your hunch was right. The verification process have one of the three ouytcomes, right, partially right and wrong. Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything about the validity of your assumptions. Hence hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. These hypotheses form the basis for enquiry (Slideshare, 2013). 4. Preparing Rearch Design Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a particular manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure (Slideshare, 2013). In order to develop a complete research design it is valuable to understand the nature of the point from philosophical point of view. Failure to think through philosophical issues can seriouly affect the quality of management resesearch (Eaterby-Smith et al, 2008). The steps involved in research design according to (Umesh) are: a) The means of obtaining the information b) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any) c) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection. d) The time available for research e) The cost factor relating to research i.e. the finance available for the purpose 5. Determining Sample Design Sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors. According to Statistics and Probability Dictionary, (2013) a sample design is made up of two elements: 1. Sampling method. Sampling method refers to the rules and procedures by which some elements of the population are included in the sample. Some of the common sample methods used are simple random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling. 2. Estimator. The estimation process for calculating sample statistics is called the estimator. Different sampling methods may use different estimators. For example, the formula for computing a mean score with a simple random sample is different from the formula for computing a mean score with a stratified sample. The â€Å"best† sample design depends on survey objectives and on survey resources. 6. Data Collection According to Basic Tools for Process Improvement, Data Collection, (1998-2013) data collection is obtaining useful information on key quality characteristics produced by your process. Data Collection enables a team to formulate and test working assumptions about a process and develop information that will lead to the improvement of the key quality characteristics of the product or service. In summary, data collection helps to establish a factual basis to making a decision. For one to collect data uniformly, you will need to develop a data collection plan. The data collection plan developed should answer the following question: 1. Why do we want the data? What will we do with the data after we have collected them? You must decide on a purpose for collecting the data 2. Where will we collect data? The location where data are collected must be identified clearly. 3. What type of data will we collect? In general, data can be classified into two major types: attribute data and variables data 4. Who will collect the data? Those closest to the data, the process workers, should collect the data 5. How do we collect the right data? Collect data that best describe the situation at hand. 7. Data analysis Eisenhardt, (1989) explains that analysis is an interactive process started with the development and presentation of an initial set of theoretical propositions based on evidence from the first phase of data collection, during field work and the theoretical assumptions associated with the theoretical framework. According to Kothari, (2004) the term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationships that exist among data-groups. Thus ‘in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions. The process operations in data analysis are: a. Editing: it is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and ommsisions and to correct these where possible. b. Coding: it refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses cab be put into a limited number of categories or classes. c. Classification: it is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. d. Tabulation: it is to arrange data in some kind of concise and logical order. 8. Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used by statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses (What is Hypothesis Testing, 2013). Statisticians follow a formal process to determine whether to reject a null hypothesis, based on sample data (Statistics and Probability Dictionary, 2013). This process is called hypothesis testing. An hypothesis test consists of four steps. a) Formulate the hypotheses. This involves stating the null and alternative hypotheses. The hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and vice versa. b) Identify the test statistic. This involves specifying the statistics (e.g., a mean score, proportion) that will be used to assess the validity of the null hypothesis. c) Formulate a decision rule. A decision rule is a procedure that the researcher uses to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis. d) Test the null hypothesis. Use the decision rule to evaluate the test statistic. If the statistic is consistent with the null hypothesis, you cannot reject the null hypothesis; otherwise, reject the null hypothesis. 9. Interpretation Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study (Kothari, 2004). The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and (ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. Interpretation is considered a basic component of research process because of the following: a) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh enquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be maintained. b) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies c) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings. d) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses for experimental research and as suich interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research. 10. Report Writing Features of Good report, (2013) defines a report as a piece of informative writing that describes a set of actions and analyses any results in response to a specific brief. A quick definition might be: â€Å"This is what I did and this is what it means.† Kothari, (2004) outlines the following as different steps in writing a report: a. Logical analysis of the subject matter: thre are two ways in which to develop a subject (i) logically and (ii) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. It contains materials from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence, the directions for doing or making follow the chronological order. b. Preparation of the final outcome: outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are and aid to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report c. Preparation of the rough draft: the researcher writes down what he has done in the context of his study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with limitations faced, the technique of analysis adopted, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned. d. Rewriting and polishing the rough draft: while rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. He should also see whether the material presented as it is presented , has unity and cohesion. In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft if he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing-grammar, spelling and usage. e. Preparation of the final bibliography: the bibliography , should contain all the works which the researcher has consulted. f. Writing the final draft: while writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illiustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most in communicating the research findings to others. The format suggested below is the same as that used in most published papers as laid down in Guide to Writing Research Reports, (2013). 1) Title: The title should provide a single line description of the study. In many cases, the title will mention the independent and dependent variables. Your title should be a brief, but accurate reflection of the content of the report 2) Abstract: The abstract is a short summary of the report. It should contain a brief description of the rationale and of the method, results and discussion sections. It should be a comprehensive but concise summary of the whole report which will enable readers to decide if they wish to read any further. A useful rule of thumb is to try to write four concise sentences describing: (1) Why you did it, (2) What you did, (3) What results you found and (4) What you concluded. Write the abstract after you have written the rest of the report. 3) Introduction (Why you did it): The Introduction should present the reasoning behind the particular study which you are describing. This means that the reader, having read the introduction, should feel able to anticipate what your study will involve and should allow someone who is not an expert to understand why you did this study. For this reason the introduction will begin at a general background level and progress through to the specific reasons for and aims of the study. This will normally include a review of past work in the area and an explanation of the theoretical or practical reasons for doing the study. 4) Method (How you did it): In the method section, you describe the essentials of how you gathered your data. This section must contain enough information for the reader to be able to repeat the study, but should exclude any irrelevant details. It explains about the (i) research participants, (ii) apparatus used, (iii) materials used, (iv) design and (v) procedure. 5) Results (What you found out): Begin this section with a description of how you treated your data. This means that you should describe what you got from all of the responses that were made by each participant to the scores that were analyzed. Follow the description of the treatment of the data with a clear, concise summary of the data using descriptive statistics. 6) Discussion (What you think it means): This is the section in which you interpret the results of the study and discuss their meaning. It is important that your discussion relates to the issues raised in the introduction, since this presented the reasons for conducting the study and the results should provide more details about these issues. You should link the arguments made in this section with the issues and research hypotheses raised in your introduction section. In particular: (i) How do your results compare with your research questions and/or predictions? (ii) How do your results compare with relevant published results? (iii) What are the implications for future research? 7) References: Should contain all the works which the researcher has consulted. 8) Appendices: You should include here all material that would have been obtrusive or damaging to the ‘flow’ of the report itself, and not just use it as a bin to contain things you wished to say but could not fit into the main report. Therefore, the contents of the Appendices usually consist of raw data, statistical formulae and computations, lengthy protocols, examples of stimuli and details of stimulus preparation, etc Bibliography 1. Basic Tools for Process Improvement, Data Collection. (1998-2013). Retrieved September 15th, 2013, from Balance Scorecard institute, Strategy Management Group: http://www.balancedscorecard.org/portals/0/pdf/datacoll.pdf 2. Eaterby-Smith. (2008). Management Research: An Introduction. SAGE publishers Ltd. 3. Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building Theories from Case Study Research. Academy of Management Review , 14 (4) 532-550. 4. Features of Good report. (2013). Retrieved September 15th, 2013, from University of Reading, Malaysia: http://www.reading.ac.uk/internal/studyadvice/StudyResources/Essays/sta-featuresreports.aspx 5. Guide to Writing Research Reports. (2013). Retrieved September 15th, 2013, from University of Essex, UK: http://www.essex.ac.uk/psychology/department/A-Z_files/GUIDE%20TO%20WRITING%20RESEARCH%20REPORTS.pdf 6. Kothari. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and Techniques Second Edition. Jaipur,India: New Age International Publishers Limited. 7. McGregor, J. A. (2010). Paradigm, Methodology and Method: Intellectual Integrity in Consumer Ccholarship. International Journal of Consumer Studies 34 . 8. Sebastian Reiter, G. S. (2011). Strategy for Delayed Research Method Selection: Deciding Between Grounded Theory and phenomenology. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods Volume 9 . 9. Slideshare. (2013). Retrieved September 14th, 2013, from Slideshare.Inc: http://www.slideshare.net/rao_sahab/hypothesis-12915876?from_search=1 10. Slideshare. (2013). Retrieved September 14th, 2013, from Slideshare.Inc: http://www.slideshare.net/sagar_sambare/research-design-13174653?from_search=4 11. Statistics and Probability Dictionary. (2013). Retrieved September

Public Sector Innovation And National Highway Development Project Economics Essay

India had its rendezvous with fate on 15 August 1947 when it got independency after about 200 old ages under British regulation. India started its procedure to construct up the state so by following the policies of socialism, be aftering committees. However it was marked by ruddy tapes, controls, bureaucratism hurdlings, and authorities intercession. For about 40 old ages India grew at a slow gait of 3.5 % which is now called Hindu rate of growing. In 1993 India dwelled into a new way to growing. The markets were opened ; liberalization and globalisation were the words of the twenty-four hours. However India could ne'er go the success narrative which it became without revamping its decennaries old transit substructure. India was now turning at a modest gait and to do certain that the growing degrees are increased and maintained it became imperative that the logistic substructure be improved. Acknowledging these endangering jobs India under the regulation of NDA ( National Democratic Alliance with the BJP as biggest party in the confederation ) with the auspices of the so premier curate Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced a monolithic undertaking to revamp its substructure. It was called â€Å" National Highway Development Project † which paved the way for a new epoch of growing.IntroductionNational Highway Development Project was implemented in 1998. It planned to widen, reconstruct the national main roads of the state which accounted for less than 2 % of the entire route web in India but carried about 40 % of the route traffic. Road denseness in India is among the lowest at 2.75km per 1000 people and 770 kilometers per 1000 sq kilometer compared to 6.7 and 841 resp. ( TCA Anant, 2008 ) The stage I of the undertaking was called the Golden Quadrilateral ( GQ ) Project. Subsequently seven more stages have been launched and the undertaking has been extended to cover all the of import hubs, ports to this national main road grid.The UndertakingThe bureau responsible for execution of NHDP was National Highway Authority of India ( NHAI ) . It is a nodal bureau under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India. The stage I and phase II of the undertaking aimed at building and up step of 13,146 kilometers of national main roads into 4 to 6 lanes. The aureate quadrangle undertaking and the north South and east West corridors were portion of these stages. Golden four-sided undertaking aimed at bettering route connectivity between the four metropolitan metropoliss of India viz. , New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Other major towns like Ahmedabad, Surat, Vishakhapatnam, Pune, Bangaluru were besides supposed to be a portion of these national main roads. East west corridor connected Silchar in E to Porbandar in West. North south corridor connected Srinagar in north to Kanyakumari in South. Phase III plans to incorporate the province capital and major economic hubs with the NHDP I and II and entire 12,109 kilometer of main roads will be upgraded in this stage. In stage IV around 20,000 kilometer of national main roads will be constructed and upgraded. These are majorly the main roads that were non a portion of stage I, II and III. Phase V envisages to upgrade 5000 kilometer of 4 lane roads into 6 lane roads. The authorities still has to make up one's mind which subdivisions of the main roads will be upgraded in this stage. Phase VI plans to build freewaies in India on BOT footing. These freewaies will link major industrial towns of India. Phase VII plans to construct beltwaies, overpasss, pealing roads to increase route web in metropoliss to national main roads.Economic ImpactAs the assorted undertakings were launched there was a ra pid rise in the creative activity of occupations. There was besides a immense employment coevals in both skilled and unskilled sectors. During the stage I about 250000 individuals per twenty-four hours were required or around 40 individuals per km per twenty-four hours. ( www.nhdp.org ) . Assorted sectors like steel, cement industry and equipment makers saw high growing rates during the period. As per figures from imperativeness information agency, Government of India growing rate in cement, steel and commercial vehicles were 8.1 % , 6.8 % and 55 % severally. ( www.nhdp.org ) There was a direct correlativity in the advancement of the undertaking and the GDP growing. By the clip the stage one was approaching completion India was timing a GDP growing of more than 8 % systematically. Harmonizing to World Bank the one-year benefits the one-year benefits were about Rs 8000 crore on the GQ undertaking itself. There were a batch of indirect benefits which were to be realized with the undertaking. These were chiefly a decrease in clip for transit of cargo and riders. There will besides be a decrease in vehicle operating costs, fuel costs, and care costs. As the roads will be made the connectivity of rural parts with the nearby major towns will better thereby impacting the development of the country. It would take to faster motion of the green goods and will profit trade. Most significantly there would be a great decrease in accidents. During the clip another strategy â€Å" Pradhan Manti Grameen Sadak Yojana † was besides envisaged and implemented by the authorities. The strategy vowed to better route substructure in the rural countries. It was decided to construct roads in the small towns and link them to the national main roads. Thus the thought on the portion of the authorities to better basic substructure was truly applaudable. In January 2012 when the authorities announced that the aureate undertaking is complete it was the 5th longest main road in the universe. The undertaking was completed in Rs 32000 crores and was under budget as the authorities had estimated that the undertaking cost would be Rs 60000 crore ( at 1999 monetary values ) . The undertaking was besides a first of its sort when it was completed before agenda which is new for a undertaking of this graduated table. The authorities was really dedicated to finish the undertaking and because of this allowed 100 % FDI in the sector. This was one of the earliest sectors where 100 % FDI was allowed. However, recognizing that it would still non be able to bring forth adequate funding for the undertaking assorted funding theoretical accounts was adopted. Cess on gasoline and Diesel along with external and market adoptions were adopted to raise capital for the undertaking. Private partnership was introduced to raise finance and joint ventures with international contractors were made.Financing of Highway ProjectsHistory Until the creative activity of National Highway Authority of India ( NHAI ) , roads were treated as public goods. The funding for developing and keep these roads came chiefly from revenue enhancements. There was no or really small connexion between cost of developing the roads and the income from the revenue enhancements. There was really small effort at direct route pricing. The Problems Limited Support: Highway development requires big investings but the authorities was already under big financial shortage. Inefficiencies: There were big inefficiencies that led to project over tallies thereby intensifying the undertaking budgets exponentially. Hazard: With full development with authorities, all hazard was concentrated at one point. This strained the funding capableness of the Creation of NHAI NHAI started its operation in 1995, the major motive for an independent organic structure under authorities of India was to increase the rate at which national main roads were been developed. One of the major hinderances in increasing this gait was the limited capital available with the authorities. NHAI realized that to full make full its vision it has to look outside authorities for capital to develop its national main roads. The Financial Innovations To understand the fiscal inventions at NHAI, foremost we have to understand the assorted hazards associated with building of National main roads Pre-development: Environmental clearance, land acquisition and other such demands before the building of roads can be done. Delaies in acquiring clearances cause holds and dearly-won undertaking over tallies. Construction: Changes in designs, conditions and geological conditions, financess inaccessibility, incorrect planning of material handiness and unanticipated labor deficits may take to project over tallies Use: Less than expected route use, users unwillingness to pay higher toll rate, may significantly impact the grosss from the route. Foreign exchange rate: Fluctuations in exchange rate may take to important cost over tallies for abroad developer Act of God: Natural catastrophes like temblor, inundations may take to holds and rework. These will take to important cost impact on the undertaking. Political Hazards: Change of authorities, expiration of the undertaking, undue infliction of high revenue enhancements, may set considerable fiscal hazard on the undertaking. The assorted funding theoretical account implemented by NHAI are EPC ( Engineering procurance and building ) contract: The undertaking is wholly finance by the public financess ( E.g. World bank/ADB ) . Except for building hazard all hazards are borne by NHAI. The advantages that NHAI has achieved through this manner are rapid execution of undertakings, improved quality of roads, foreign investings organize big multinationals. The inefficiencies involved in development of big substructure undertakings like national main roads have been minimized. Foreign multinationals have set up joint ventures with Indian companies driving up inventions and successful execution of undertakings Annuity Contract: Financing of undertaking is done from the contracted rente. Undertaking is financed through these rente receivables. But the fiscal hazard is borne by NHAI. Here NHAI is responsible merely for financing the undertakings. Advantage for NHAI in this manner of funding is that, it has to pay the contractor every twelvemonth specific sum to construct the route. BOT contract: Build operate and transportation as the name suggest, the company to wins the contract has to construct the roads, maintain it and bring forth grosss so as to acquire back all the money invested and so reassign the main road back to authorities after specific period of clip. These contracts are project fundss, with all the capital coming from the private participants. A particular purpose company is created and all the hazard except for political hazard is borne by it. EPC and Annuity presently dominate majority of the undertakings. Therefore most of the hazard is still with NHAI. For undertaking funding as in instance of BOT contract, the certainty of use of main roads and thereby the toll aggregation is really less. This puts a batch of hazard on the investor and hence really few BOT contracts have been materialized. Is Securitization the solution? National main roads have long gestation periods, with hard currency flows coming really tardily in the entire undertaking continuance. This puts considerable fiscal hazards on the private company to take is such undertakings. To minimise this hazard securitization mechanism can be put in topographic point. Securitization is a manner of finance in which assorted hard currency flows are pooled together and sold to particular purpose vehicle created to implement this undertaking. SPV so issues debt securities which are backed by the hard currency flows. Is the feasible solution to hike main road development in India, should NHAI implement this theoretical account?ChallengesLand Acquisition Act, 1984 When railroad web was being expanded in India in the nineteenth century the British Government so swayers of India faced jobs related to the private land acquisitions. They so enacted and passed the jurisprudence whose first ordinance was passed every bit early as 1824. India adopted the jurisprudence in 1947 to chiefly take attention of land acquisition for public usage. However this was merely a land acquisition jurisprudence and did non had commissariats for rehabilitation. Presently the authorities has to cover with this act along with 16 other Acts of the Apostless for commanding private land acquisitions by the authorities and its organic structures. Harmonizing to the jurisprudence the land has to be valued at monetary values on the day of the month of presentment and the compensation has to be paid consequently. However, this had led to broad spread unfavorable judgment and protests from land proprietors. The authorities has been dragged into a figure of differences refering to set down acquisitions. Presently over 80 NHDP undertakings are acquiring delayed due to differences in land acquisition. It is argued by a subdivision of society that the regulations under the act are Draconian. The compensation paid by the land acquisition officer to the land proprietors is besides less than the market value due to money being siphoned off at many phases due to corrupt functionaries. There are charges that the land is under evaluated by the functionaries and when the compensation is being paid at below market monetary values to the land proprietors there is non much public-service corporation for them. Besides, non much attention is tak en about rehabilitation of the people who are displaced by the undertakings. The authorities had appointed commission to see into all these issues and to come up with new recommendations to better the act. The authorities is be aftering to postpone a new jurisprudence in the parliament nevertheless the bill of exchange has led to fresh concerns by the industries and societal militants likewise. The new jurisprudence will do cost of land acquisitions up to four times the market rate in rural countries and twice the market rate in urban countries. Still the societal militants argue it to be pro-market and one which will increase land differences. The investors and houses argue it to be one which will do investings in undertakings dearly-won. President of Confederation of Indian Industries ( CII ) Adi Godrej said after reading the commission ‘s recommendations â€Å" Rather than turn toing concerns of the industry over the commissariats of compensation and consent required for land acquisition, the recommendations of the commission do non look to be takin g into history the demand of the industry, thereby, go forthing it to fend for itself, † Coordination among ministries In India acquiring blessings for substructure undertakings requires a close coordination between assorted cardinal, province and local municipal degrees. It involves coordination amongst all these parties and leads to detain in acquiring undertaking approved. This finally makes the fiscal viability of the undertaking questionable. ( Wang et al, 2000 ) . Despite authorities confidence of a individual window and fast clearance of substructure undertaking they are still acquiring delayed due clearances involved. Change of authorities and its precedences The undertaking was envisioned during the government of NDA in 1999. However, when the elections were held in 2004 UPA ( United Progressive Alliance ) came in to power and has been in power for the last 8 old ages. There focal point has shifted to other public assistance strategies like MGNREGA ( Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act ) , farm loan release among others. This has shifted the precedences of the authorities to raise fundss for its public assistance strategies and non the NHDP undertakings. Subsequently, the undertakings have been running on holds and many undertakings have delayed because the contracts have still non been handed over.RoadmapGiven the challenges being faced will the authorities now take steps to convey in fresh reforms in the sector so that the marks of NHDP are met? This might affect taking in some tough steps which might be opposed by subdivisions of society. However, will a better sense prevail and a greater good of the society, GDP gr owing ends be achieved.

Adrienne Rich on Power in Society

Adrienne Rich on power in society Introduction The theme that interested me most in the poems by Adrienne Rich was the inadequacy of language as a means of communication. Rich shows that the reason for this lies in the way language expresses power relationships in society. Often this means the unequal relationship between women and men, but also between the powerful and the powerless. This theme is touched upon in almost every poem we studied, from Rich’s early poems to those written later. To illustrate how Rich explores this theme I will look in detail at â€Å"Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers†, â€Å"The Uncle Speaks in the Drawing Room†, â€Å"Our Whole Life†.Paragraph 1 In â€Å"Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers†, Rich creates a fantastic image of the aunt’s nonverbal communication through her tapestry. The poem opens with a vivid picture of the colourful, energetic alive world depicted on the tapestry. The aunt infuses the world of the tigers with many of the attributes she misses in her own life: a sense of being truly alive and in tune with the environment, and a state of fearlessness: â€Å"They do not fear the men beneath the tree/ They pace in sleek chivalric certainty. The ee- sound in these lines introduces a note of terror that heralds what is to come. Indeed the phrasing suggests a reason for fear from men. The feelings that the aunt is projecting into her artwork, her own fears and desires are developed in the middle stanza. Her shaking, fearful hands â€Å"fingers fluttering† are very vivid and the fact that they find the â€Å"needle hard to pull† suggests physical weakness and contrasts very much with the tigers. Paragraph 2 The reason for this weakness is â€Å"Uncle’s wedding band/ Sits heavily† on her â€Å"hand†.The possessive â€Å"Uncle’s† suggests that this is a one-way marriage that drains all life out of the aunt. Her hands come to represent her pers on in this poem and it is the hands that do the ‘talking’. The Uncle’s power over her seems to continue in death â€Å"When Aunt is dead, her terrified hands will lie/ Still ringed with the ordeals she was mastered by. † However, her unspoken, yet very articulate legacy remains: â€Å"The tigers in the panel that she made/ Will go on prancing, proud and unafraid. The tigers represent happiness, confidence and thereby beauty. Interestingly, this image of self-determination and sense of entitlement to the world is projected into the jungle, i. e. outside of society. This is where freedom exists and Aunt’s art gives expression to this. Paragraph 3 In contrast to Aunt Jennifer’s indirect communication, â€Å"The Uncle Speaks in the Drawing Room† is the dramatic monologue of a wealthy, powerful man. He speaks as a representative of the ruling class looking out at a group of discontent working people.These people have neither wealth nor pow er. They have gathered outside his big house to express their anger at this inequality. The uncle’s attempt to convey confidence and reassurance to his family is undermined by the images of anger outside. The poem’s sound expresses this threat. O- sounds and S-sounds dominate: â€Å"Standing sullen in the square [†¦] Some have held and fingered stones. † As the poem develops, the Uncle’s own fear becomes clear. The image of â€Å"glass† echoes and comes to symbolise â€Å"class†.He admits that the â€Å"frailties of glass [†¦] Lead in times like these to fear/ For crystal vase and chandelier. † Even his reassurance â€Å"None as yet dare lift an arm† achieves the opposite – the suggestion of an uncertain future, â€Å"arm† in fact has two meanings in this context! Paragraph 4 In fact the two most vivid images in the poem are the angry crowd outdoors on the one hand and the terrified forefather (indoors à ¢â‚¬â€œ like this family) on the other: â€Å"When our grandsire stood aghast/ To see his antique ruby bowl/ Shivered in a thunder-roll. Despite his attempts to reassure, the Uncle admits to deep unease at the end of the poem regarding the precarious position of his class as â€Å"We stand between the dead glass-blowers/ And murmurings of missile-throwers. † In terms of the theme of language, the Uncle uses it to express his position as a powerful wealthy man. Although his fears still become clear, it is still a useful tool for him. The workers outside do not have a voice, their language is not verbal: â€Å"sullen stares†, â€Å"bitter tones† and holding â€Å"stones†. There is no common language between the powerful and the powerless.Paragraph 5 â€Å"Our Whole Life† was written later. There is a stark change in terms of form to the previous two poems. It is written in free verse and uses no punctuation whatever. This in itself indicates Richâ⠂¬â„¢s thinking about language and the ability to express truth. Here, she strips it of its traditional appearance. In terms of theme, â€Å"Our Whole Life† explores the shocking gulf between the powerful and the powerless at a new level. Language has failed the powerless completely. Language is used to manipulate people’s thoughts about the world, â€Å"rendered into the oppressor’s language†.In an incredibly vivid image Rich depicts language as a violent and self-destructive wild animal: â€Å"and now a knot of lies/ eating at itself to get undone/ Words bitten thru words†. The biting and eating is enacted in the abbreviated spelling â€Å"thru†. People’s actual lives and experience cannot be told: â€Å"meanings burnt-off like paint/ under the blowtorch/ All those dead letters/ rendered into the oppressor’s language†. Paragraph 6 This poem places one shocking image after the other and language has become an instrument in a very violent world.The vision goes much further than in â€Å"The Uncle Speaks†, it encompasses the whole world and is in essence apocalyptic. The image of the burning Algerian walking away from his village to a doctor with no words to describe is pain is haunting: â€Å"his whole body a cloud of pain/ and there are no words for this/ except himself†. The absence of punctuation and in particular of a concluding full stop suggests the ongoing nature of the problem. Language has completely and disastrously failed its purpose as a means of communication between humans.In conclusion, Rich has opened up for me a way of looking at language that in some ways coincides with my own thinking and experience. However, she takes it unflinchingly and with amazing honesty and courage to a final analysis. She creates in her poetry unforgettable images for how women and all the powerless have been deprived of a means of expressing themselves. Language is an instrument of the powe rful. Although Rich’s poetry is a reflection of radical feminism and political struggle in the USA during the 6os and 70s I feel that what if conveys is as true now as it was then. Adrienne Rich on Power in Society Adrienne Rich on power in society Introduction The theme that interested me most in the poems by Adrienne Rich was the inadequacy of language as a means of communication. Rich shows that the reason for this lies in the way language expresses power relationships in society. Often this means the unequal relationship between women and men, but also between the powerful and the powerless. This theme is touched upon in almost every poem we studied, from Rich’s early poems to those written later. To illustrate how Rich explores this theme I will look in detail at â€Å"Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers†, â€Å"The Uncle Speaks in the Drawing Room†, â€Å"Our Whole Life†.Paragraph 1 In â€Å"Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers†, Rich creates a fantastic image of the aunt’s nonverbal communication through her tapestry. The poem opens with a vivid picture of the colourful, energetic alive world depicted on the tapestry. The aunt infuses the world of the tigers with many of the attributes she misses in her own life: a sense of being truly alive and in tune with the environment, and a state of fearlessness: â€Å"They do not fear the men beneath the tree/ They pace in sleek chivalric certainty. The ee- sound in these lines introduces a note of terror that heralds what is to come. Indeed the phrasing suggests a reason for fear from men. The feelings that the aunt is projecting into her artwork, her own fears and desires are developed in the middle stanza. Her shaking, fearful hands â€Å"fingers fluttering† are very vivid and the fact that they find the â€Å"needle hard to pull† suggests physical weakness and contrasts very much with the tigers. Paragraph 2 The reason for this weakness is â€Å"Uncle’s wedding band/ Sits heavily† on her â€Å"hand†.The possessive â€Å"Uncle’s† suggests that this is a one-way marriage that drains all life out of the aunt. Her hands come to represent her pers on in this poem and it is the hands that do the ‘talking’. The Uncle’s power over her seems to continue in death â€Å"When Aunt is dead, her terrified hands will lie/ Still ringed with the ordeals she was mastered by. † However, her unspoken, yet very articulate legacy remains: â€Å"The tigers in the panel that she made/ Will go on prancing, proud and unafraid. The tigers represent happiness, confidence and thereby beauty. Interestingly, this image of self-determination and sense of entitlement to the world is projected into the jungle, i. e. outside of society. This is where freedom exists and Aunt’s art gives expression to this. Paragraph 3 In contrast to Aunt Jennifer’s indirect communication, â€Å"The Uncle Speaks in the Drawing Room† is the dramatic monologue of a wealthy, powerful man. He speaks as a representative of the ruling class looking out at a group of discontent working people.These people have neither wealth nor pow er. They have gathered outside his big house to express their anger at this inequality. The uncle’s attempt to convey confidence and reassurance to his family is undermined by the images of anger outside. The poem’s sound expresses this threat. O- sounds and S-sounds dominate: â€Å"Standing sullen in the square [†¦] Some have held and fingered stones. † As the poem develops, the Uncle’s own fear becomes clear. The image of â€Å"glass† echoes and comes to symbolise â€Å"class†.He admits that the â€Å"frailties of glass [†¦] Lead in times like these to fear/ For crystal vase and chandelier. † Even his reassurance â€Å"None as yet dare lift an arm† achieves the opposite – the suggestion of an uncertain future, â€Å"arm† in fact has two meanings in this context! Paragraph 4 In fact the two most vivid images in the poem are the angry crowd outdoors on the one hand and the terrified forefather (indoors à ¢â‚¬â€œ like this family) on the other: â€Å"When our grandsire stood aghast/ To see his antique ruby bowl/ Shivered in a thunder-roll. Despite his attempts to reassure, the Uncle admits to deep unease at the end of the poem regarding the precarious position of his class as â€Å"We stand between the dead glass-blowers/ And murmurings of missile-throwers. † In terms of the theme of language, the Uncle uses it to express his position as a powerful wealthy man. Although his fears still become clear, it is still a useful tool for him. The workers outside do not have a voice, their language is not verbal: â€Å"sullen stares†, â€Å"bitter tones† and holding â€Å"stones†. There is no common language between the powerful and the powerless.Paragraph 5 â€Å"Our Whole Life† was written later. There is a stark change in terms of form to the previous two poems. It is written in free verse and uses no punctuation whatever. This in itself indicates Richâ⠂¬â„¢s thinking about language and the ability to express truth. Here, she strips it of its traditional appearance. In terms of theme, â€Å"Our Whole Life† explores the shocking gulf between the powerful and the powerless at a new level. Language has failed the powerless completely. Language is used to manipulate people’s thoughts about the world, â€Å"rendered into the oppressor’s language†.In an incredibly vivid image Rich depicts language as a violent and self-destructive wild animal: â€Å"and now a knot of lies/ eating at itself to get undone/ Words bitten thru words†. The biting and eating is enacted in the abbreviated spelling â€Å"thru†. People’s actual lives and experience cannot be told: â€Å"meanings burnt-off like paint/ under the blowtorch/ All those dead letters/ rendered into the oppressor’s language†. Paragraph 6 This poem places one shocking image after the other and language has become an instrument in a very violent world.The vision goes much further than in â€Å"The Uncle Speaks†, it encompasses the whole world and is in essence apocalyptic. The image of the burning Algerian walking away from his village to a doctor with no words to describe is pain is haunting: â€Å"his whole body a cloud of pain/ and there are no words for this/ except himself†. The absence of punctuation and in particular of a concluding full stop suggests the ongoing nature of the problem. Language has completely and disastrously failed its purpose as a means of communication between humans.In conclusion, Rich has opened up for me a way of looking at language that in some ways coincides with my own thinking and experience. However, she takes it unflinchingly and with amazing honesty and courage to a final analysis. She creates in her poetry unforgettable images for how women and all the powerless have been deprived of a means of expressing themselves. Language is an instrument of the powe rful. Although Rich’s poetry is a reflection of radical feminism and political struggle in the USA during the 6os and 70s I feel that what if conveys is as true now as it was then.